The Other America

Michael Harrington first exposed the public to the poverty of many Americans through his book The Other America: Poverty in the United States. Many had been previously unaware of the harsh conditions that some had to face, while some who knew chose to ignore them. The Other America showed the Americans that those in poverty were just as human and could feel the suffering that they had to endure. Harrington’s book was powerful enough to bring about attempts to increase the living standards in America, especially in crowded urban areas.

Although the 1950s was a time of prosperity for many, some simply could not escape poverty. During this time, poor farmers moved into the cities to find better work, while the urban areas spread out as suburbs developed. Due to overcrowding, cities lost money, and businesses could not pay their employees.

Because of racism and segregation, African-Americans and Mexican-Americans lived in unsanitary slums in the cities. A policy of urban renewal began when the National Housing Act of 1949 constructed inexpensive new housing and formed the Housing and Urban Development cabinet position. Despite these efforts, they were not adequate to meet the needs of those living in slums. Also, some existing living spaces were torn down to make room for new ones, displacing some who had homes.

Many poor Americans demanded employment, especially African-Americans, Mexican-Americans, and Native Americans, who wanted equal opportunities and demonstrated though civil rights movements and organizations. This unrest continued, exposing an unstable country and economy that was not as secure as many had initially believed. Although some believed the Americans were in a time of plenty, they had not seen that there was a gap between the visible America and the Other America.

.:The Other America:.

The Urban Poor

By 1962, almost one out of every four Americans were living in conditions under poverty level. By this time "The American Dream" was out of the question for most Americans. The majority of the poor consisted of: the elderly, single women with their children, and minority groups (such as African-Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans).

White Flight

During the 1950's, millions of middle-class white Americans fled the cities to live in the suburbs - dividing them from other races, as well as classes.

Reversely, about 5 million African Americans abandoned the rural South for urban areas.

Due to this "migration" of middle-class whites to suburban areas, the urban poor whites, as well as non-whites, were greatly impacted. They had lost a huge part of their businesses, tax-payers, and property. The cities could no longer support facilities such as school improvements and transportation.

The Inner Cities

The majority of suburban residents were not even aware of the poverty within the cities. Many refused to believe that poverty could exist in such a powerful nation as the USA.

Michael Harrington had lived amongst the poor in the urban areas and had later published a novel that stunned the rest of America. The Other America: Poverty in the United States (1962). He released the shocking and harsh realities of the urban poor to the rest of America. He also showed how widespread it had become.








Urban Renewal

The majority of minorities such as African-Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans lived in unkempt, overpopulated slums.

Miranda v. Arizona

One of the countries largest and most well known cases still in use today is the case of Miranda v. Arizona. In 1963 a man named Ernesto Miranda was arrested in his home and convicted of rape and kidnap. The police questioned him for two and a half hours before he finally gave up, and signed a confession. Later, when he was convicted he revealed that he was unaware of his right to an attorney, or his right to avoid self-incrimination, because the police never informed him. Miranda brought his case to the court and eventually got his conviction overturned by the Supreme Court in 1966. Chief Justice, Earl Warren argued that police were violating the 5th amendment which states that nobody can be a witness to themselves. Warren also stated that in the situation that Miranda was in, it was intimidating, and he felt forced. After the decision, they could no longer use his confession as evidence in the case.  The decision was 5-4, a landmark case in American history, changing the way that the legal system works today. Now, when a police officer is taking someone into custody, they are obliged to read the person their rights,  known as the Miranda warning. 

 

Election of 1960 and the Camelot Years by Brent

The Election of 1960 was a close race between Democratic senator from Massachusetts, John Kennedy and the Republican Vice President Richard M. Nixon. Both candidates had similar stances on issues but John Kennedy was better prepared for the new source of media, the television. During a televised debate on September 26, 1960 about 70 million Americans watched the two candidates duke it out on the big screen. Kennedy was only 43 years old and Nixon hoped to use his knowledge on foreign policy to make Kennedy look bad, but Kennedy was coached prior to the debate by television producers. Kennedy learned how to look at ease and confident and also spoke better than Nixon. Another event that put Kennedy over the top of Nixon was that Kennedy was his stance on civil rights. When Martin Luther King Jr. was arrested and sentenced to several months of hard labor, Kennedy used his influence to get MLK released on bail, pending appeal. This gained support of the African American community. After the votes were counted, Kennedy had won by more than just 100,000 votes.
The Camelot Years were the years of Kennedy's presidency. His family, with his beautiful wife Jacqueline and their cute children, represented the ideal American family. Many Americans began to copy the trends of the family living in the White House. Women looked to Jacqueline for fashion advice while a great deal of other Americans had hopes of becoming a speed reader like Kennedy. Kennedy could read 1600 words per minute which is quite amazing and must have helped him out as president. In addition, Kennedy surrounded himself by the "best and brightest" people to help him out as president. One of these people was his brother, Robert Kennedy who was appointed attorney general. His inauguration included many skilled writers, artists, and scientists which was a humble prelude to the beginnings of the Camelot Years.
Images courtesy of www.nydailynews.com

Crisis Over Berlin and the Bay of Pigs

The Berlin crisis occurred in 1961, just 11 years after the Berlin Airlift. The issue was brought about due to the fleeing of an approximate 3 million East Berliners to the democratically-controlled West Berlin. Not only did East Berlin lose much of its people, the people leaving were often in skilled positions such as doctors and tailors. To stop this mass exodus, Khrushchev made the decision to erect a wall splitting off West Berlin from East Berlin. Within a few days, the Berlin Wall was made with soldiers manning it day and night. While this wall did fulfill its task of preventing East Berliners from leaving, it was also a sign of weakness that Kennedy full took advantage of. He told the American people that Communism had to build walls to keep people from fleeing, which gave the Americans
confidence in capitalism and democracy.

Another crisis that arose was over the situation in Cuba. The United States tried to secretly overthrow the Cuban government and Fidel Castro, but the plan went seriously awry. The small advance group did not even reach the shore, while the main force of 1,300 Cuban exiles was met by 25,000 Cuban troops with air and tank support. Overpowered as they were, the Cuban exiles were either killed or imprisoned, which reflected badly upon the U.S. Kennedy, who had approved the mission with the advice of his staff, wondered how the mission could go so wrong.
Both of these events were just the start of the Cold War, and they tested both the U.S. and the Soviet Union to see to what lengths each were willing to go to.

Great Society....

The Great Society was a set of programs that addressed the domestic and infrastructure problems in the United States during the 1960's. Enacted by President Lyndon B. Johnson, the Great Society focused on eliminating poverty and racial injustice. The social reforms were in part, ideas taken from the late John F. Kennedy domestic agenda. The Great Society closely resembles the New Deal, former President Franklin D. Roosevelt's lead measure pulling the U.S. out of the Great Depression.

To improve some of the economic and social conditions, some major programs were introduced, many of which still exist today. Among the Civil Rights category: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 disallowed any job discrimination and the segregation of public accommodations. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 ensured minority voting rights and registration. Public health was also an issue of concern. Even today we may not have free health care provided by the government to everyone, but the government has Medicaid and Medicare to provide health care for individuals on welfare and elderly. Other constituted acts included in the Great Society reforms help decrease poverty, improve education, transportation, environment, and national endowments for the arts and humanities.

For reasons like the Great Society reforms, it is whats make the U.S. such a valued place to live. Almost fifty years later, we must consider taking these reforms to an even higher level.

The Election Of 1960 And Camelot Years

In the election of 1960 the Republicans nominated Eisenhower's Vice President Richard M. Nixon as president candidate, the Democrats chose Massachusetts senator John F. Kennedy. Both nominees had similar positions on policy issues. Although Kennedy was much younger than Nixon, and many people felt that he was too inexperienced, he won the election, and would be the second-youngest president in the history of the United States. Two important factors helped him to win the voter's sympathy. On one hand, there was the first televised debate between presidential candidates on September 26, 1960. Since Kennedy had been coached by TV producers he appeared more confident, and spoke better on TV. On the other hand, Kennedy won the voter's sympathy with his support of civil rights, and his willingness to discuss issues openly.
John F. Kennedy's presidential term is often described as the "Camelot Years", since Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline often invited artists, writers and celebrities to the White House. The press loved his smooth style, and he would often appear on television. The Kennedy Family represented the "perfect" American family.

Rabea

The Other America -by Vivek Sainanee

The urban poor made up almost 1/4 of the American population. These were the people that were below the poverty level. In the 1950s, many of the middle-class whites decided to move to the suburbs to start again. On the other hand, much of the black population moved to the urban areas. Unfortunately, the poverty level increased, and many minorities had to live in slums . The proposition of Urban renewal proposed a solution to this problem. It proposed that they tear down the poorly constructed buildings of the current neighborhood. Then, they would build new housing that could fit as many people as possible in the smallest amount of space possible. The proposition did not come into place, however, and parking lots, shopping centers, highways, parks, and factories were built instead of the new housing.


During the Second World War, much of the workforce was off fighting the war. During this time, American Government started a plan in which Mexicans known as braceros were allowed into the US to contribute to the work force. The braceros mostly harvested crops. The Longoria Incident was a Mexican American hero of World War Two who was killed, but the government in his home town refused to pay the funeral services. Many Native Americans gained citizenship, fought for rights, and joined the American army to fight in World War Two. In 1953, the United States Federal Government announced they would cease to take responsibility of the Native American tribes. This became widely known as the termination policy. The Bureau of Indian Affairs, however, took charge by starting a relocation program to help Native Americans settle in cities. Many of the Native Americans in cities were not able to get decent jobs. Many were subject to racial prejudice and many did not have access to health care. By 1963, the government realized what they were doing and abandoned the termination policy.

by Vivek Sainanee

Creating the Great Society

BY Kuleen Nimkar:

Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) had a sweeping vision for the potential of the United States, a vision he named in May 1964: the Great Society. To achieve his vision, LBJ implemented domestic reform in 5 main categories: addressing poverty, improving cities, providing education,helping the environment, and empowering customer advocacy. To fix the aid the poor, LBJ passed the Medicaid Act in 1965 to ensure those on welfare received medical assistance. He also passed the Economic Opportunity Act in 1964, creating the Job Corps., VISTA, Project Head Start, and a variety of programs to win the war against poverty.

To improve cities, LBJ passed the Omnibus Act of 1965 to provide funding for low income housing for the needy. He also formed the Department of Housing and Urban Development to monitor and develop federal housing programs. Along with this line of aid, LBJ significantly increased funding for public education. The Higher Education Act of 1965 funded scholarships and low-interest loans for college students. Another piece of legislature to improve education was the Elementary and Secondary Education Act provided over 1 billion dollars to fund schools with textbooks, libraries, and special education.

To protect the slowly eroding environment in the U.S., LBJ implemented a trio of acts: The Water Quality Act, the Clean Air Act Amendment, and the Air Quality Act. These 3 acts ensured safe water in the U.S. for all to drink and use, and it set standards on air pollution and emissions to stop factories from polluting to a dangerous extent. Finally, to empower consumers, LBJ created the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act to make sure the government monitored safety in automobiles and tires. On top of that, LBJ convinced Congress to pass the Truth in Packaging Act of 1966 to make sure companies could not lie to consumers about the consumer products they sold.

This myriad of laws and acts that were established during LBJ's presidency were all aimed at creating LBJ's dream Great Society. While they did not make the country perfect, these programs and laws still function to this day because they provide a valuable and necessary part of the American infrastructure, and help citizens every day.

Miranda v. Arizona

The landmark case of Miranda v. Arizona was decided in 1966 under the Warren Court, a Court known for expanding the rights of accused people.

In 1963, Ernesto Miranda was arrested by the Phoenix police on charges of kidnapping and rape. He was questioned for hours, and signed a confession. He was later convicted, mainly because of his confession. Miranda appealed, claiming that his confession should not hold at trial because it was coerced. He also said that because the police had never advised him of his rights, they had taken advantage of him by violating his 5th amendment right to avoid self-incrimination and his 6th amendment right to an attorney.

The Supreme Court agreed with Miranda in a 5-4 decision. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote that when suspects are interrogated by the police, the situation is "inherently intimidating", making any statement taken from the defendant invalid because it cannot truly be the product of his free choice. The Court directed police to inform suspects of his or her rights at the time of arrest, which are now called Miranda warnings. The court decided that the rights of the accused need to be protected to ensure that innocent people are not thrown in jail. It also ensured that authorities could not harass people for political reasons, which was common during the 50s and 60s.

The decision, although highly controversial, tried to balance the rights of the accused and public safety. The Court believed that although some criminals might walk free because of this decision, it would overall be for the greater good and protect the innocent more than help the guilty.


by Jeannette

Miranda v. Arizona

In 1963, Ernesto Miranda was arrested in Phoenix on charges of kidnapping and rape. He was then questioned by police for two hours, eventually signing a confession that he was later convicted on. After his conviction, Miranda appealed, claiming that his confession was invalid because he was coerced and was never advised to his right to an attorney or the right to avoid self-incrimination.

The Supreme Court overturned Miranda's conviction, stating that the police must inform suspects of their rights at the time of arrest and may not be interrogated if they invoke their rights. Chief Justice Warren based his argument on the Fifth Amendment, the right that a person cannot be forced "to be a witness against himself." He said that interrogations were naturally intimidating and that any evidence obtained could be the true statement of the suspect.

As a result of Miranda v. Arizona, police must inform suspects of their rights at the time of arrest, in order to protect innocents from being wrongfully convicted. As a result, anyone who has seen a person be arrested will know the phrase, "you have the right to remain silent." Critics have said that the "Miranda Warning" protects the rights of criminals, and the decision was challenged in 2000. The Supreme Court supported Miranda v Arizona in Dickerson v. United States, saying there is no reason to overturn Miranda and that it has already "become part of our national culture."

-Rainier.

The Other America by David Hwang

Michael Harrington's The Other America: A Poverty in the United States uncovers the extreme conditions many poor Americans endured during the post World War II era. Forty million, or one in every four Americans lived below the poverty line during this time of supposed economic prosperity. Much of these 40 million impoverished Americans were members of minority groups that include Latinos, African Americans, and Native Americans.
A large portion of this crisis was caused by the mass movement of middle-class white Americans moving into the suburbs while millions of African Americans migrated from the rural south to the inner city in hopes of finding jobs. With the loss of the economically valued middle-class in these urban centers, many businesses along with public services failed.
To help remedy the crisis, the National Housing Act of 1949 was passed to provide much needed housing in the urban area. The act intended to convert rundown areas into clean, affordable housing. Instead, much of the demolished property was used for factories, highways, and shopping centers.
Despite the numerous problems in their economic situation, African Americans made momentous leaps in civil rights. Mexican Americans inspired by the success of the African American civil rights movement. Ignacio Lopez founded the Unity League of California to promote and register Mexican-American voting. Native Americans made some steps toward equality with the Passing of the Indian Reorganization Act. However in spite of these immense gains, equality was still far from reach.
With civil rights still in its infancy, and the economic situation in the tank, the post war U.S. should not be always remembered as a pristine and joyous era. Instead one should remember this nation as a whole. There should be no memory of another, but only one and true United States.

Reaction to the Brown Supreme Court Decision

On May 17th, 1954, the United States Supreme court unanimously struck down segregation in schools as an "unconstitutional violation of the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause".  The official reaction to this verdict was mixed.  State officials in Oklahoma and Kansas anticipated a quick and smooth desegregation process.  In states like Texas and Georgia, governments vowed to do everything they could to keep the "white children in white schools, and the colored children in colored schools," as Georgia Governor Herman Talmadge said.  

In a positive response to the Brown ruling, five hundred school districts had desegregated their classes within the year.   Baltimore, St. Louis, and Washington D.C., were some of the places where for the first time in history, black and white students sat next to each other in the same classroom.  Unfortunately, many places resisted the ruling on desegregation; in many places the Klu Klux Klan reappeared and White Citizens Councils boycotted businesses that supported desegregation.  This resistance brought about a second ruling on the Brown case, called Brown II.  This new ruling called for desegregation to be "implemented with deliberate speed".  Eisenhower initially refused to comply, but later events in Arkansas made him reconsinder.

Arkansas was the first southern state to admit African Americans to state universities without being required to do so.  After the Brown decision, the Arkansas school board planned for a rapid desegregation process. Governor Orval Fuagus, however, favored segregation, and in September of 1957 he ordered the national guard to reject nine African American students from Central High School.  A federal judge then ordered Faubus to let the students into the school.   These nine African American Students became know as the "Little Rock Nine".  The Little Rock Nine faced unparalleled abuse from whites in and out of school.  Elizabeth Eckford happened to encounter an especially abusive crowd as she was not escorted by the NAACP on the first day they attended Central High School.  Eisenhower was forced to send troops to the scene in order to protect the nine African American teenagers.  The whole nation witnessed this event on television, giving much publicity to desegregation.  On September 9th, 1957, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1957, the first civil rights law since 1957.

By Michael

Miranda v. Arizona

In June 13, 1996, the Supreme Court of the United States decides on landmark case Miranda v. Arizona, granting any suspects right to be read Miranda Warning. This case started in 1963, when Ernesto Miranda was arrested at his home in Phoenix, Arizona, with charges of kidnapping and rape. He was interrogated for two hours and signed a confession. Largely based on his confession, he was convicted of his charges. However, Miranda appealed, claiming that his confession was invalid because it was coerced and because the police never advised him of his right to an attorney or his right to avoid self-incrimination.

The Supreme Court of U.S. overturned Miranda's conviction, because police must inform criminal suspects of their legal rights at the time of arrest and may not interrogate suspects who invoke their rights. The legal reason of the court was that Fifth Amendment, which guarantees that an accused person cannot be forced "to be a witness against himself" or herself. Chief Justice Earl Warren who delivered the majority opinion asserted that under the intimidating situation of interrogating, what suspect states can't trubly be of his free choice.




This became the landmark case because it made everyone to be treated with respect by their government, and it protected rights of suspect to ensure that innocent people are not punished.

- Deukkwon Yoon, E

«The Bay of Pigs, Crisis over Berlin»

An invasion plan fails, the Iron Curtain becomes real.

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The Bay of Pigs (La Batalla de Girón)

la bahía de chochinos (bay of pigs)

One of Kennedy's greatest failures as president began as a CIA plan approved by President Eisenhower in March 1960. The plan, called Operation Pluto, allowed the CIA to covertly train Cuban exiles for an invasion of Cuba. It was hoped that the exiles would overthrow Castro's government. Kennedy was informed of the plan a mere nine days after his election, but approved it nonetheless.

landing zones and combat area

The plan utilized a force of cuban counterrevolutionaries who had been displaced to Florida by Castro's new government. On the night of Apri 17, 1961, about 1,400 exiles landed on the Bay of Pigs, mostly on Girón Beach. (Playa Girón)

Though the plan was intended to be secret surprise attack, Cuban intelligence had learned of the plan before its execution via spy work. Also, news of the plan had been loosely talked about by members of the exile brigade, and the plan had been reported by local and foreign newspapers.

An air strike intended to soften the shores for the landing exiles failed to destroy the Cuban Air Force, even though the CIA reported success. The exiles landing on the beach met a Cuban force of 25,000 strong augmented by soviet tanks and aircraft. Unable to mount an effective attack without U.S. air support, and lacking a fallback position, the invasion failed.

In later CIA analysis of the failed invasion, a report was prepared for the main reasons of failure.

• The administration believed that the troops could retreat to the mountains to lead a guerrilla war if they lost in open battle. The mountains were too far to reach on foot, and the troops were deployed in swamp land, where they were easily surrounded.
• They believed that the involvement of the US in the incident could be denied.
• They believed that Cubans would be grateful to be liberated from Fidel Castro and would quickly join the battle. This support failed to materialize; many hundreds of thousands of others were arrested, and some executed, prior to the landings. (see also Priestland 2003; Lynch 2000). The invasion by a foreign country boosted the support of the Fidel Castro government. -Wikipedia

counterrevolutionary prisoners

The prisoners were traded for a 53 million dollar ransom in food and medicine. Kennedy declared in a speech that the exiles would return to a "free Havana," and that he would resist communist expansion. Castro welcomed continued soviet aid.

"Thanks for Playa Girón. Before the invasion, the revolution was weak. Now it's stronger than ever." -Che Guevara

Crisis Over Berlin

After World War II, Germany had been split in half, with the western half going to the capitalist Europe and the eastern half going to the soviets. Tensions between the halves and their owners increased when increasing amounts of people tried to escape East Germany to escape communism. During a summit meeting in Vienna, Austria Khrushchev demanded that military forces be removed from West Germany. He threatened to sign a treaty with East Germany blocking all access roads to West Germany. The summit was a showdown between relative newcomer politician Kennedy and veteran politician Khrushchev.

"I want peace. But, if you want war, that is your problem"
-Nikita Khrushchev

The summit culminated in the construction of the Berlin Wall, which stood as an ugly symbol of communist oppression. While it choked the flood of people trying to escape communism, over the 28 years of its existence 5,000 people succeeded in escaping and 200 died trying

The tensions of cold war politics constantly threatened nuclear war. As a result, a hot line was set up between the Kremlin and the White House to guarantee instant negotiation in the face of an emergency.

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s

Korean War

North and South Korea had established different capitals and governments by 1948. Kim Il Sung led the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. Their base was in North Korea in a city called Pyongyang. The South Koreans, on the other hand, established teir base in Seoul, which was Korea's original capital. The South Koreans were led by Syngman Rhee. By June of 1949, American troops had gradually been pulled out of Korea. The Soviet Union saw this as a retreat from American control of Korean land. The Soviets decided to prepare North Korea for battle, supplying them with tanks, airplanes, and money, so they could take over more land. The first conflict occured on the 38th parallel on June 25, 1950. The North Koreans crossed the 38th parallel with armed forces. The soon penetrated South Korea's border, while the South Koreans requested the United Nations for help. The vote passed in the United Nations Security Council. Surprisingly, the Soviets did not come, and the Soviets could not veto the vote. President Truman decided to support the South Koreans with many troops and the American fleet. Across 16 nations, 520,000 troops helped South Korea's 590,000 troops. General Douglas MacArthur, a former WWII hero, was placed in control of the counterattack against the North Korean groups. MacArthur decided to land troops in Inchon while another group of troops moved up to Pusan. The strategy worked very well. At the same time, United Nation troops were chasing the remaining North Korean troops back across the 38th parallel. The Chinese, however, decided to support North Korea in the war. The Chinese sent 300,000 troops in order to keep North Korea as a Communist buffer state. The Chinese did not like the threat of the American fleet fighting Communism so close to their borders. The Chinese fought with the North Koreans and they got back into South Korea. MacArthur decided that it would be a good idea to attack China. President Truman disagreed, and did not allow MacArthur to proceed. Eventually, Truman disagreed with MacArthur to the point where on April 11, 1951, Truman had fired MacArthur. Many Americans were upset at this decision. Over 69% of Americans had liked MacArthur, but soon the controversy disappeared. The Soviets proposed to end the war with a cease-fire, and in July 1953, the two sides signed an armistice, ending the Korean War.


by Vivek and Ranier
4-8-09 E period USH

The Cold War in the Skies

The Cold War in the Skies
by Kuleen and Albert

After Stalin’s death, a vacuum of power was left in Soviet politics. Nikita Khrushchev eventually filled this void. Khrushchev favored a policy involving friendly economic and scientific competition between the two powers. The presence of such a leader among the Soviets sparked the Space Race, as the United States and Soviet Union competed to be the first country to get into space. On 10/4/1957 Russia won the race by launching Sputnik, the world’s first artificial satellite. The U.S. responded frantically, by pouring money into research and successfully launched its first rocket on 1/31/1958.
Though the Soviets won the Space Race, the U.S. had achieved air superiority through their spy planes the U-2’s. After President Eisenhower’s “open skies” proposal was rejected at the 1955 Geneva summit conference, the CIA started high-altitude flights over Soviet territory. They used the U-2, because it could fly at high altitudes to avoid detection, and use infrared cameras to take detailed pictures of Soviet military movement. However, by 1960, U.S. officials were nervous about the program for 2 reasons: 1. Some members of the U.S. press were aware of the spy program and 2. The Soviets had been aware of the flights since 1958. Eisenhower wanted the program terminated, because on 5/15/1960 he and Khrushchev were meeting for a summit to discuss the arms race. He could not afford to ruin his image before the conference. Unfortunately, he was persuaded to allow one last flight on May 1st. On this final mission, the U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers was shot down over Soviet territory, and imprisoned for 10 years. This encounter enraged Khrushchev, who demanded an end to the spying and an apology. Initially, Eisenhower denied the spying activity, however he was forced to admit the espionage when faced with Soviet evidence. Eisenhower agreed to end the clandestine activity, but refused to apologize. Khrushchev canceled the summit, retracted his invitation for Eisenhower to enter the Soviet Union and tension rose. This U-2 incident rekindled much of the tension in the Cold War, and perpetuated the conflict.

McCartyism

Joseph McCarthy was a Republican Senator from Wisconsin in the 1950s. In his past 3 years of experience, he was known for being an ineffective senator. McCarthy knew he needed a strong issue to run on if he was going to be reelected in 1952. He began accusing communists of trying to take over the United States' government. The attacks on suspected communists became known as McCarthyism. Later on, it became known as the unfair tactic of claiming disloyalty without evidence. McCarthy accused Democrats of treason for allowing communist infiltration within the government. He only made accusations in the Senate, where he had legal immunity from being charged of slander. McCarthy claimed there were over 100 communists in the State Department, but could never produce any names. In 1954, McCarthy accused the US Army of communism which resulted in a nationally televised investigation by the Senate. It came to light that McCarthy bullied his witnesses and it cost him public support. The Senate condemned McCarthy, and he died 3 years later from cirrhosis of the liver due to his heavy drinking.

McCarthy's "Witch Hunt"

Joseph McCarthy was a Republican senator from the state of Wisconsin. He began targeting suspected communists as a part of a reelection campaign, feeding off of people's fear of a nuclear war and evolving Communist regimes. He made these accusations without evidence, and even pointed a finger at government officials. Not many Republicans stood up to him because they believed the fear of Communism Americans had, would help them win back the presidency.

McCarthy's downfall came in 1954 when he called out the U.S. Army. His lack of evidence and abusive tactics came out into the open and cost him many supporters. As he lost power, the effects of McCarthyism remained due to fear of having loyalty questioned. Even unions were less active in fighting for their causes. Many Americans became more suspicious, and investigations were very common. All in all, the fear of Communism entering American society was a huge factor and drive in both national and international politics for many years to come.



Miyabi and Kristin (Period E)

The Origins of the Korean War

Japan annexed Korea in 1910 and occupied it until August 1945, when Japan surrendered to the Allies. After World War II, Japanese troops in the region north of an imaginary line called the 38th Parallel surrendered to the Soviets, but Japanese troops south of the line surrendered to the Americans. In 1948, South Korea was established and named the Republic of Korea, headed by Syngman Rhee, with the capital in Seoul. At the same time, in the north, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was formed, led by Kim Il Sung in the capital of Pyongyang.
Koreans in the north felt that they should reunite their country under Soviet rule. On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops led a surprise attack across the 38th Parallel into South Korea. The Korean War had begun.
Two days later, on June 27, President Truman and 16 other nations in the UN sent aid to South Korea. 90% of the troops in South Korea were American. To counter the overwhelming force in American troops, communist China sent troops to support the North Koreans, which became a turning point in the war.
In 1953, the Truce Line was established between North and South Korea and remains to this day. South Korea today remains a democratic government, while North Korea today is a dictatorship.

By:
Rabea
Valerie

McCarthy's Witch Hunt

Senator Joseph McCarthy, a Republican from Wisconsin, was the most famous anti-Communist activist. He exploited people's concerns about Communism by making ridiculous accusations which had no support. His attacks on alleged Communists became known as McCarthyism. Today, McCarthy's tactics are known as the McCarthy Witch Hunt. During his time in office McCarthy claimed to have the names of up to 205 Communists in the State Department. However, he never actually produced a single name. He restricted his accusations to within the Senate, where he was protected from being sued for slander. His fellow Republicans made no attempt to stop him because they wanted the public to believe they were getting rid of the nation's Communists. Thus, it would give them an advantage in the 1952 presidential election. In 1954, McCarthy made accusations against the United States Army. These accusations spurred a nationally televised Senate investigation. McCarthy's maltreatment of the witnesses cost him public support. He was condemned by the Senate for improper conduct that "tended to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute". Three years later he died due to alcoholism.

-Greg and Michael

Origins of the Cold War

After World War II, the United States and Soviet Union experienced short-lived alliance. At the end of the war, U.S. soldiers and Soviet soldiers met at the Elbe River and this would be the last time these countries would have peaceful meeting for 46 years. The Cold War began as the Communism spread into Eastern Europe through Soviet influence. The U.S. was afraid of losing trade partners and allies. The U.S. wanted to create a new world order in which all nations would have the right to "self-determination" and where the U.S. would have access to raw materials and markets for its industries. However, the Soviet Union wanted to encourage communism in other countries as part of the worldwide struggle between workers and the wealthy, and rebuild its war-ravaged economy using eastern Europe's industrial equipment and raw materials. The Soviet Union justified its action by using their effort in WWII as a defense. This caused a bitter rivalry which became known as the Cold War.

Soviet Communism controlled all the property and economic activity of its people. It was run by totalitarian government which disallowed any other political parties. The government was led by Joseph Stalin, who had been an ally to Roosevelt during WWII. However, just before WWII started, Stalin had been Adolf Hitler's ally. The alliance was broken when Hitler attacked the Soviet Union. Because Stalin was not deemed trustworthy, the U.S. did not get along with the Soviet Union and the bitter rivalry started.

The U.S. was looking to further its economic growth and this caused it to get involved in European foreign policy. In order to open trade networks, the U.S. needed allies in Europe and the rest of the world. As the Soviet Union created satellite states in order to spread its communist influence, the U.S. backed democratic countries financially. Because of this, the Soviet Union and the U.S. never fought any actual battles.

The Cold War dominated global affairs during this time period. The Soviet Union and the U.S. were the world's leading superpowers of the time. The U.S. foreign policy would be directed by the course of the Cold War and the war would not end until 1991 when the Soviet Union's economy collapsed.

Deukkwon Yoon
Bryce Filler

Alger Hiss and the Rosenbergs by Brent and David

Two accusations of of spies in the United States roused fear and suspicion among American citizens. One of the victims of American xenophobia was Alger Hiss. Wittaker Chambers, a former communist spy, accused Hiss of currently being a spy for the Soviet Union during his time in the State Department. Chambers obtained microfilms from Hiss' typewriter and attempted to use them to prove that he was a spy. Unfortunately for Chambers, too much time passed since the incident to charge him with espionage. Hiss lied about passing the documents and was prosecuted for perjury instead. Then Republican Congressman Richard Nixon pursued this case. Due to publicity of the case, Nixon became Vice President four years later.

Another interesting case was that of the Rosenbergs. It all started on September 3rd, 1949 when the Americans learned the Soviet Union exploded the first atom bomb. Most Americans believed that it would take at least three more years for the Soviets to make the technology work. Looking to find a scapegoat, many Americans believed that "evil" Communists had leaked the secret of the bomb. In 1950, German born physicist Klaus Fuchs admitted to giving information to the Soviet Union about the bomb. He brought Ethel and Julius Rosenberg into the case. They were charged with giving info to the Soviet Union which let them make their bomb work. The Rosenbergs were also members of the American Communist party and were also Jewish. They tried to plead the 5th admentment to not incriminate themseles but the court sentenced them to death for being guilty of espionage. There case made it all the way to the United States Supreme Court but the SC did not overturn the original charge. Many people around the world appealed for clemency for the Rosenbergs but there actions were unsuccessful because the Rosenbergs died in the electric chair in 1953 leaving behind two sons to fend for themselves in an increasingly dangerous world.

McCarthy's Witch Hunt

Winsconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy was a raging anti communist republican. He had a reputation of being an ineffective legislator but wanted to be re-elected in 1952. McCarthy charged that disloyal Communists were taking over the US government. The term McCarthyism came to be known as accusing others for being disloyal and a part of the Communist party without evidence to support the accusations. He claimed to know at various points that 57, 81, and 205 Communists were in the US State Department but was never able to produce even one name. He charged the Democratic party guilty of 20 years of treason for allowing Communism to infiltrate the US government. However, McCarthy only did the name-calling in the Senate only because he had legal immunity from slander which would prevent him from being sued for libel. The Republicans did little to stop him and wanted to win the 1952 presidential election. In 1954, he accused the U.S. Army which led to a public investigation by the Senate which therefore lost public support for his campaign. The Senate later condemned him for improper conduct. Three years later, McCarthy died a broken man from alcoholism.